Syllable

Syllable

Introduction:

Language is made of different sound. One sound is one syllable. It is a unit of some length. it consist one or more speech sounds. Consonants and vowels joined together make them. Any word is made up at least of one or more syllables. We can notice and analyze it a word. But we can restrict them.

Monosyllables:

There are some words which have only one sound or syllable. They are called monosyllables or monosyllabic words. Notice the words girl, boy, shirt, came, go, ant, up, cut, etc. they are monosyllables.

Multi- syllables:

There are some words which have more than one sound called syllable. if there are more syllables, they can be recognized according to their numbers. Syllables division is marked by a hyphen. e.g. tai-lor. As there are two syllables it is a disyllabic word. Remember' has three syllables 're-mem-ber'. 'Population' has four and ' examination' has five syllables.

But all the time marking by hyphen is not possible some alphabets represent two sounds. Look the word 'example'. Here 'x' represents two sounds /g/ and /z/. How to separate them, /g/ sound goes with /i/ and/z/ sounds goes with /a:/. To avoid this problem phonetic transcription is helpful. Syllable marking is done there easily. e.g. Cigarette - si-g-ret, Captain - kaep-tin, Possibility po-s-bi-li-ti.

often it is not easy to find out point out to show where one sy;;able ends on the other begins. 'Cigarette can be the divided into two ways - 'Si-g-ret' and 'sig-ret'. But as far as phonology allows it can be done. Meaning is important.

Syllable Composition:

Syllable is or can be composition of consonants and vowels. There are a few syllables which are made of only vowels e.g. 'ah' 'oh' 'I'. /u/ and /a:/ spoken respectively. if a syllable has more than one speech sounds. one of them will be a vowel and rest consonant. e.g. 'any' it is made of /e/ and /ni/. Dipthong is considered a single sound unit. To understand the composition of a word some terms should be useful.

The vowel in a syllable is a centre unit. it is known as 'nucleus'. 

First consonant of a syllable is called ' releasing consonant'. 

Where the word ends, the last consonant is called 'arresting consonant'.

A consonant is symbolized by C

A Vowel is symbolized by V

Here are some examples:

A word CAT has the structure of CVC. Phonetic transcription 'kaet' helps us to understand, /ae/ is nucleus. /k/ is releasing and /t/ is arresting consonant. Nucleus arrests /t/ sound.

Some syllables have only the nucleus. They have V structure only. e.g.

I = /ai/

Eye = /ai/

Oh = /au/

Ah = /a:/

Some syllables have VC structure. the vowel arrests the following consonant. 

e.g.

Am = /aem/ /a:m/

All = /:I/

Up = /^p/

Ass = /aes/

Some have CV structure. e.g.

Be = /bi/  She = /Si:/

So = /su/ See = /si/

Taper = /tei-p/ go = /gu/

Some have CVC structure e.g.

Boat - /b ut/ Room = /rum/

Come = /k^m/ spme = /s^m/

Gone = /g^n/

 English language allows three consonant to begin a syllable and four syllables to ends. i.e. CCC in the beginning and CCCC at the end. Thus there can be consonant clusters.

Closed and open syllable:

A syllable that ends in a consonant is called a closed consonant. E.g. 'bad', 'good', 'dog', 'add' etc. The syllable ends in a vowel is called open syllable eg. 'tea' 'go' 'bee' 'be' 'she' 'crow' etc.

Syllable consonant:

As we have seen that nucleus is important. it joins releasing and arresting consonants. But there are some cases where consonants join purpose of nucleus or a vowel. this is also a reason that even though they are consonant. Treated as vowel and articulated as V 

e.g.

Kettle = ke-tl, Cattle = /kae-t;/, Little = /li-tl/

Cotton = /k-tn/ Sudden = /s^-dn/ ridden = /ri-dn/

Such syllables are called syllabic consonants and their structur Cv, as /m/, /n/, /l/ and /r/ occupy the V position in some syllables.

Thus understanding of syllable will help us in getting more knowledge about phonology and phonetic levels which are very much useful in poetry and tones.

What is Phonology?

What is Phonology?

According to Bloomfield,

"Phonology is the organization of sounds into patterns"

In order to fulfill the communicative functions, languages organize their material, the vocal noises, into recurrent bits and pieces arranged in sound patterns. It is the study of this formal organization of languages which is known as phonology.

What is Sound?

How and where is it produced from?

How is it received by the ears?

How and why is one sound different from the other?

Question like this is the subject matter of phonology.

Difference between Phonetics and Phonology:

      Phonetics is the science of speech sounds, their production, transmission and reception. It represents all the speech sounds in general and with no perticular reference to any one language.

      Phonology is the study of vocal sounds and sound changes, phonemes and their variants in a particular language. If Phonetics can be likened to a world, phonology is a country.

      Phonetics is one and the same for all the languages of the world, but the phonology of one language will differ from the phonology of another.

      According to John Lyons, phonology is the level at which the linguist describes the sounds of a particular language. The subject matter of phonology is selected phonetic material from the total resources available to human beings from phonetics.

     The human vocal system can produce a very large number of different speech sounds. Members of a particular speech community speaking that particular language, however, use only a limited number of these sounds. Every language makes its own selection of sounds and organizes them into characteristic patterns. This selection of sounds and their arrangement into patterns constitute the phonology of the language.

Phonetics is general and Phonology is particular and functional.

Major Concepts of Phonology:

1. Phoneme:

Most linguistics have regarded the phoneme as one of the basic units of language. But they have not all defined the phonemes in the same way. the term phoneme was first use in the late 1870s by Saussure. he has introduced two Phonemes but the major work has been done by Edward.

The phoneme according to Bloom is the minimum unit of distinctive sound feature as per the Webster dictionary the phoneme is defined as the smallest unit of speech distinguishing one unit from another. According to Dorman, phoneme is a single speech sound or group of similar or reflects and speech sound functioning in a language.

Depending on the above mentioned points of view of phoneme can be defined as a unite, a bundle of sound feature or the smallest constructive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning for example, 'Put' 'But' 'Cut' 'Bat' 'Cat' 'Sat' 'Mat' etc.

2. Phone:

It is consider to be any objective speech sound consider as a physical event and without regard as to how it finds into the structure of any given language is a phone. Therefore a phone in phonology is the smallest possible segment of sound abstractive from speech.

3. Allophone:

Some sounds the native speaker thinks are the same while others are different. the linguistics has to figure out which sounds are having common elements in it and how it differs from each other. For example: /k/ - Keen, Calm, Coal etc.

Linguistics defines their allophone in the following manners,

1. Sound should be phonetically similar - k - c

2. They should be in complimentary in distribution

3. they should exhibit patterns with other group or sounds

4. Generative Phonology:

Modern science of speech sounds began with the concept of phoneme as developed by the school of linguistic 1930.

Novel - Forms of Literature

Novel

(1) What is Novel?

Earlier novel meant a short story written and collected by Boccaccio (1313- 1375) in his “Decameron”. The shorter Oxford Dictionary (1700) explains that it is

“A factious prose narrative of considerable length, in which characters and actions represents real life and are portrayed in a plot of more or less complexity”.

Today it is a story longer, more realistic and more complicated. At present, novel is the most widely read of all kinds of literature.

 (2) Plato’s objections to art/novel

Is reading a novel waste of time?

       Many people seriously think that novel reading is a waste of time. There are some reasons behind it.

(a) Influence of Plato:-

        Plato (427-348 B.C) believed that almost all literature is imaginative and therefore harmful. Literature leads people to believe in lies. Shows both men and gods in a bad light and is useless. In literature the truth is twice removed from reality, because reality presented in it is not itself real but it is copy of something.

(b) Newness of novel:-

        Novel is not as old form as traditional epics or poetry. Novelist does not ennoble the world but presents it as it is, with all meanness, dirt, and sexuality. To some people this is their feelings. They think the novel is intelligent and attractive but has no history, no tradition and is too ‘young’, too ‘modern’. There are people who think that some novelists like Richardson and Dickenson were men of poor education, and they knew not enough Greek or Latin and were not ‘gentlemen’. So their works were considered as the kind of second.

(c) Few-examples of good Novels:

      Today a growing number of novels are unfortunately simply sadistic or pornographic; few serious novels are to be found. Publishers are interested in money as some writers are. In doing so, many people are misled like the novel ‘Lady Chatterley`s Lover’ by D. H. Lawrence.

 (3) What novelists do?

           The telling of a story remains the important things in a novel. Novelists do it in different way.

1] The novelist is interested in characters and motives as well as in events.

2] The novelist is often interested in stating some moral or social problem                                   and expressing own opinions about it.

3] The novelist is sometimes more interested in creating an atmosphere of expressing some kind of poetic feeling than in telling a story.

4] The novelist wishes to take a much wider view of man and the world than the simple storyteller does.

(4) Background of the novel:-

(a) Long Narrative Poems-

        The history of English novel may be said to start in 1740 with the publication of Richardson`s  ‘Pamela’. It is considered the first novel of English Literature. But before that many attempts were made. Chaucer`s  ‘Troilus and Criseyde’ is a long story poem misleading to call its description as of a novel. Thomas Malory`s ‘Morte d` Arthur ’ has broad vision but not a single stretch of novel is seen.

(b)Romance:

    In ‘Romance’, the adventures were very far away from real life. It was written in a highly artificial kind of prose set against a classical or pastoral background and people with heroes and heroin bearing Greek or Latin names. Such books were intended for educated people. Sir Philip Sidney`s ‘Arcadia’ (1590), John Lily`s ‘Euphues’ (1578) and Robert Greene`s ‘Menaphon’ (1589) are such examples.

(c) Picaresque tradition:-

   ‘Picaro’ is a Spanish word meaning ‘a thief’ or ‘a rogue’. It was applied to any long story in which a number of separate events, sometimes comic and sometimes violent were joined together only by the fact that they happened to the chief character. In this tradition, the hero generally is a ‘rough’, ‘a Picaro’. Now far that ‘anti-hero’ that kind of phrase is used. The most famous among them is Cervantes’s ‘Don Quixote’. Other examples are Fielding`s ‘Tom Jones’, Smollett`s ‘Roderick Random’.

(5) Different methods for novels:-

         The novelist can allow himself almost unlimited time in which to build up his characters set his scene and tell his story. If he wishes, he can also include long explanations of his own philosophy and opinion. Therefore, we get long novels many times. In modern period, the length is not attractive and considered. The novelists use different methods to tell his story.

(a) Omniscient view (plain narration):

   Plain narration is simple method of storytelling. He takes omniscient view. It means he will not only describe the outward behaviour and action of his characters but also their thoughts and feelings. In this respect, we have to believe that the novelist knew everything.

(b) ‘I’ method:-

     There is another method of telling a story in the first person singular by a narrator. He himself refers as ‘I’. Using this method a writer may make his story more realistic and more credible but he will not be able to look very deeply into the minds and the motives of the other characters. ‘David Copperfield’ by Dickens is fine example of this method.

(c) Narration by letters:-

        Sometimes a novelist will choose to tell his story through a series of letters. This method has advantages and disadvantages both. Richardson`s ‘Pamela’ and ‘Clarissa Harlowe’ belong to it.

(d) Conversation:-

         To advance the story, the novelist may choose conversation between two characters. But for realistic conversation the novelist should take too much care in hearing the poken language because different characters speak different dialects.

(e) Stream of consciousness:-

         Some modern novelist like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf used this method. It is ‘interior monologue’. Psychology of character is revealed. There may not be chronological order in events. Readers may be puzzled ‘Ulysses’ by Joyce and ‘Light House’ by Virginia Woolf are best examples.

(6) The novels in modern times:-

        Modern novels are no better and no worse than novels written in the past. Of course, we can say that one finds numbers of novels and variety of subjects. In this sense, there are novels of different kind and subject.

(a) War novels:-

       In the history of our century, war and violence have been tragically important. First and Second world wars gave new formula to the novels. In England, Richard Aldington`s ‘Death of the Hero’ shows physical and mental horror of the wars. During the second war Evelyn Waugh (1903-66) gave ‘The Sword of Honour’ Outside England some novels were very famous e.g. E.M. Remarque`s ‘All Quite on the Western Front’, Henri Barbusse`s ‘Under Fire’, Norman Mailer`s ‘The Naked and the Dead’. Herman Wouk`s ‘The Caine Muting ’.

(b) River Novels

      This kind of novel flows on and on through a number of books tracing the history of a single character or a group of characters. Usually each part can be enjoyed as a separate book ‘The Forsyte Saga’ a single novel consists of three novels : ‘The Man of Property’,  ‘In Chancery’ and ‘To let’.

       Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832)  made famous the historical novels. It can offer an escape from reality. The value of a historical novel does not depend on its factual truth. Robert Graves is as much a historian as a novelist. His work include ‘I’, ‘Claudius’, Claudius the ‘Good’, ‘Count Belisarius’. Henry Trace wrote number of the historical novels. Evelyn Waugh`s ‘Helena’ and Golding`s ‘The Spire’ belong to this category.

 (d) Allegorical Novels:

    They are called as ‘visionary’, ‘apocalyptic ’or ‘Fanciful novels’. It does not intend of reflect life as it actually is, but as it might be. Science fiction, moral tables, is included in it. Anti-Utopia world becomes the setting of a novel. H.G. Wells ‘Mr. Polly’ and ‘Kipps’, Huxley`s ‘Brave New World’, Oewell`s ‘Nineteen Eighty Four’, Golding`s ‘Lord of the flies’ are such examples are many great novelists. We shall remember them because in a line or paragraph is not justifiable to novelists like D.H. Lawrence, Maugham, H.E. Bates, C. Irewood, Iris Murdoch etc. There are also Dickens, Thackeray and the four wheels of novels - Richardson, Fielding Sterne and Smallet. Graham Greene and American novelists like Steinbeck, Faulkner and lots of others can not be forgotten. They made novel ‘glorified’ and ‘attractive’.

          

Tragic Drama - SY BA

Tragic Drama

What is a tragedy? Discuss Greek Tragedy and Shakespearean Tragedy.

Definition of a tragedy:

   Tragedy is a common word in day-to-day life. When a sad or unlucky event takes place, we say it is a tragedy. Newspapers often write about road accidents and call it a tragedy. In dramas, too this world is used carelessly. If a drama has a sad end or shows some deaths of characters, it is a tragic drama. But in literature it is something more. Serious action is very important. A great man should only do it. The action should be described in a grand manner. Action or the incidents should be capable of arousing the emotions of pity and fear. This would lead the reader for the catharsis i.e. purgation.

 Greek/Aristotelian Tragedy:-

        The beginning of tragedy is to b found in ancient Greece. Before the fifth century great Athenian dramatist like Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides wrote tragedies. These are chief traits of Greek tragedy.

1. Well- known stories of gods and princes or king and heroes are described.

2. Strong religious elements prevailed, and the belief that the god would punish those who broke the moral law, which controls the world. divine to maintain divine justice.

3. Horrors and violence are not shown on the stage. The chorus narrated them to the audience

4. There were only few actors between two to five or six.

5. Characters were of high class i.e. the figures like king queens, princes; princesses or heroes.

6. No mixing of tragic and comic elements

Aristotle`s questions:-

           Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was living at the same time when Greek tragedies were written and performed. Therefore, he drew his ideas from them. He asked two question regarding this:-

1. Why do we get pleasure and satisfaction seeing tragedy?

2. What kind of person ought the chief character of a tragedy to be?

His answers were:

    In real life, our certain emotions especially of pity and fear do not get used. And tragedy stirs up and gets flow away up like waste products. It is called purgation or catharses.

   The hero of a tragedy should be neither good nor bad. If he is too good, his fall will be shocking and if he were too bad, we would not have pity on his face. For this, his own weakness (Hamartia) is made responsible.

    At last, he defined the tragedy in the following term: Aristotle says, “Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having, magnitude, complete in itself, incidents arousing pity and fear wherewith to accomplish the catharsis of such emotions”.

Catharsis/Purgation:

               Aristotle was the first person to use the word. When he was discussing the tragedy in general, he gave this word. In his “Poetics”, he defined the tragedy where we have seen the word “Catharsis”. It is a Greek word. This means Purgation. It is related to human psychology. Aristotle’s father was related to medicines. Naturally, he would have some effect of this occupation.

              Before we go to explain the word, we have to remember that there are many critics who have disputes over this word. Some discussions are going on. But we shall see tragedy in general manner. To answer and explain the tragedy he has asked a question that why we are taking interest and get pleasure in seeing their things, which we are not enjoying in reality. He says that,

“Certain emotions especially the emotion of pity and fear, do not get used enough in civilized life.”

            Tragedy has many effects. Among them one is to stir up (move up) these emotions so they flow away from us like the waste products of the body after purgation.  Actually Purgation is related with physical nature. It brings out waste products of the body while Catharsis brings out waste products of the mind. This is difference between these words but as we have seen that,

“The Greek word for Catharsis is Purgation”

Hamartia:

          In his ‘Poetics’ Aristotle has defines “What is Tragedy?” He studied his contemporary plays and found two questions regarding the psychology of theatre going. From those answers, we have answer of the above questions. He went on the idea of Catharsis and purgation.

            Hamartia is related with Aristotle’s other question: What kind of person ought the chief character (or hero or protagonist) of a tragedy be?

 1. The hero of tragedy should not completely bad. He does not suit tragedy. If he is bad, he will not get sympathy of the reader or spectator, because we do not have pity to bad characters. When he suffers or dies, we shall not feel pity or sympathy. We think it was fit to him. Our desire satisfied actually such bad character is given punishment and our joy increases.

2. In the other hand, he should not be completely good. If he is a completely good man we shall feel shacked and depressed when he suffers. Our sense of justice will have no faith in good. Good man will never have sympathy if it is so. We shall think that God has no control over the world.

          “Hamartia” is a Latin word meaning “a weakness of the hero” or “a fatal flow”. So Aristotle thought the hero ought to be “Good but not good”. It means that he should be a person like ourselves and we can admire him. He should be such a person that we can have sympathy. For this his suffering or death should be caused by his own fault, by some weakness in his character, or by some mistake which he himself has made.

          We have beautiful examples of this trait. Shakespeare's ‘Hamlet’ is such character. He is good, kind, thoughtful, gentle, and cultivated, all the characteristics that a hero should have. but he has his own Hamartia, a fault, which is his ‘indecisive’ power. He always is in a state of ‘To be or not to be’. In addition, this is his weakness, which in the end cause his death and that of several others.

           So regarding the Aristotelian hero it is necessary of ‘Hamartia’. Aristotle when he was thinking of Hamartia, Catharsis, or Purgation, now his all ideas are relevant for all kinds of Tragedies and also in novels. This is the unequal contribution in this field.

          Giving this word to English Literature, we owe much to Aristotle. Without Aristotle’s definitions and explanation of tragedy, we would have missed many things but we are fortunate that even today we have to remember Aristotle first.

Moral Conflict:

           Conflict is necessary in any tragedy play. Many plots deal with a conflict. Conflict can be individual as well as collective or it can be inward or outward. Hero makes conflict against fate or circumstances which stand between him and a goal he has sett for himself and in some work, the conflict is between opposing, dislikes or values in a character’s own mind.

            G. H. Hegel (1770-1831) brought the idea of moral conflict when he studied Sophocles’ play “Antigone”. We don’t discuss the subject and story of the play but to Hegel it seemed that the ‘Antigone’ was the perfect example of tragedy. We know that the substance of all drama is conflict.

           The conflict generally appears as a simple one between good and evil, right and wrong. In tragedy however, things are less simple, the conflicts are between two rights. Antigone makes burial of her brother. It is proper according to religious point. But burial was prohibited. So it is conflict. Creon suffers lots of between his duty as a ruler and protector of the city and his duty as the uncle and protector of Antigone. Such moral conflicts are necessary part of life.

         The conflict between love and duty is favourite subject of a thousands films and novels as well as of great tragedies like “Romeo and Juliet”. Simple conflict can be between right and wrong. But conflict between two opposite rights is more suitable to the tragedies. Before Hegel no one had shown this kind of moral conflict. We are thankful to him for his aesthetic in which he mentioned this idea.

The Descent of the English language

The Descent of the English language

              

              The history of English has been distinguished and denied into three different periods, The period from the arrival of the English in Britain, down to about  1100 is usually called the old English or the Anglo-Saxon period. Following the earliest age, the period from 1100 to 1500 is called the middle English and from 1500 to the present day is called modern English, although migration of the English people from the continent of Europe had started during the 5th and the 6th centuries very few records of English writing is available before 700.

Indo-European family of language:

         

         Our English vocabulary is not to be studied in isolation, but it is related in one way or the other to many languages of the world, the proper beginning therefore is to views the place of English by taking into accountable many other tongues of mankind.

        For example, the people who know German language might have noticed a remarkable similarity between English and German, for instance, the German word “Milch” is very close in sound to the English ‘Milk’, likewise, the German “Wasser” is closer to the word “water” there are many other similarities between different words of German, Dutch, Spanish and English.

        The English language has had a remarkable history, and when we take a sight of historical records of English as a language, we can say that, it is a language, in particular speech of some not to civilized tribe on the continent of Europe along the north sea, of course, it had a still earlier history, going back perhaps to somewhere, in eastern Europe or Western Asia. The most remarkable thing about English language is that how it changed from being the speech of a few small tribes to becoming the major language spoken on earth.

       Considering language in isolation, we can say that it is a system of conventional vocal signs by mean of which human beings communicate, language includes the aspects of signs, vocals, conventional speech patterns, and communication.

       As we discussed earlier English, German, Dutch, and Danish are almost like in terms of pronunciation on the basis of this we may conclude that the similarity among these language are due to borrowing, because there languages are spoken by people living relatively closer to one another but that is not the case.

       If we extent the similarity within languages to Spanish, French, Latin and Greek, we can see that there are further questions that arises in so far as the patterning of English is concern. The resemblance between all the eight languages, is that they are the descents of a single parent language.

     Thus, Most of the major languages of Europe and some of the languages of Asia belong to one family known as Indo - European family of languages.

       The original Indo-European parent language became dead long before written records have existence, it was spoken by pre-historic people, whose homeland was somewhere in eastern Europe, it was perhaps between 3000 to 2000 BC, and it was during that time the people started migrating to other places, during the centuries that followed the Indo-Europeans moved rest world, in Europe and South countries in Persia and India, and it suppressed all the local languages.

        It is believed that the only language that has survived from the Pre-Indo-European tongues of Europe is “Basque” (Language of Spain Local), but as we know the language is constantly changing and as the various groups of Indo-Europeans became isolated from one another in Europe as well as in Asia and the languages began to evolve in their own way in various regions.

      Eventually a number of distinct came out and there was no longer one common tongue but a series of completely different languages. Which further produced  many more languages, from which some languages died totally and other languages gave birth to the newer ones.

      The modern descendent of the common Indo-European parent may be deride into eight principal group of branches...

1) Teutonic:

         We should first of all consider the Teutonic branch as it belongs to English, taking about the primitive Teutonic  branch can be geographically devided into three further languages, east north and west (three parts)

        The east Teutonic  languages did not survive in modern times, their principal representative language was Gothic, which is to be found in the New Testament. The North Teutonic languages are spoken today, in the Scandinavian countries like Denmark, Norway Sweden and Iceland. West Teutonic is represented by German, Dutch and English.

2) Italic:

        When Rome was only a small village, there were several Italic languages having equal status with Latin, but as Rome achieved a dominant position in the ancient world all these languages disappointed. The modern descendent of Latin usually called roman languages, show by their geographical distribution something of the extant of Roman Empire. In France and Spain the Roman conquest resulted in the complete displacement of the earlier languages by Latin.

3) Hellenic: (Greek Culture) 

         The Hellenic branch of Indo European family is today represented by modern Greek, which is the descendent of the classical Greek of Plato and Aristotle, and the common Greek dialect of the eastern meditation area in which the New Testament was written.

4) Celtic languages:

       More than 2000 years ago, the Celtic languages were spoken throughout a wide area of western Europe generally in France, Spain and Great Britain but through the Roman conquest Latin replaced all the Celtic language, but still Celtic language s exists in Ireland and Wales (Welsh, UK).

5) Deltoslavic : 

         The Slavic languages are spoken in Russia, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. The Deltaic groups do not matter as much It compresses mainly Latvian languages, which was absorb by the soviet union 1940.

6) Indo-Iranian: 

        The oldest literary work in any Indo European language is written in an Indian language Sanskrit, as the earliest 1500 BC, many books were published in this language Sanskrit has always been of great interest to all the linguistics. Another language was Romany, it was the language was thy gypsy who roamed about in Europe and America but their native was long ago in the north western part of India.

7) Armenian: 

      Now, no longer used, its modern Armenian version is spoken in Turkey and Russia.

8) Albanian: 

       The only surviving representative of the Albanian which is spoken in North Greece.

Conclusion:

       Because all of these languages have come from a common ancestors they are called cognate language and the similarities between them which are not only of vocabulary but also of grammar. We must remember however that Indo-European is only one of a number of language families throughout the world.