The Descent of the English language

The Descent of the English language

              

              The history of English has been distinguished and denied into three different periods, The period from the arrival of the English in Britain, down to about  1100 is usually called the old English or the Anglo-Saxon period. Following the earliest age, the period from 1100 to 1500 is called the middle English and from 1500 to the present day is called modern English, although migration of the English people from the continent of Europe had started during the 5th and the 6th centuries very few records of English writing is available before 700.

Indo-European family of language:

         

         Our English vocabulary is not to be studied in isolation, but it is related in one way or the other to many languages of the world, the proper beginning therefore is to views the place of English by taking into accountable many other tongues of mankind.

        For example, the people who know German language might have noticed a remarkable similarity between English and German, for instance, the German word “Milch” is very close in sound to the English ‘Milk’, likewise, the German “Wasser” is closer to the word “water” there are many other similarities between different words of German, Dutch, Spanish and English.

        The English language has had a remarkable history, and when we take a sight of historical records of English as a language, we can say that, it is a language, in particular speech of some not to civilized tribe on the continent of Europe along the north sea, of course, it had a still earlier history, going back perhaps to somewhere, in eastern Europe or Western Asia. The most remarkable thing about English language is that how it changed from being the speech of a few small tribes to becoming the major language spoken on earth.

       Considering language in isolation, we can say that it is a system of conventional vocal signs by mean of which human beings communicate, language includes the aspects of signs, vocals, conventional speech patterns, and communication.

       As we discussed earlier English, German, Dutch, and Danish are almost like in terms of pronunciation on the basis of this we may conclude that the similarity among these language are due to borrowing, because there languages are spoken by people living relatively closer to one another but that is not the case.

       If we extent the similarity within languages to Spanish, French, Latin and Greek, we can see that there are further questions that arises in so far as the patterning of English is concern. The resemblance between all the eight languages, is that they are the descents of a single parent language.

     Thus, Most of the major languages of Europe and some of the languages of Asia belong to one family known as Indo - European family of languages.

       The original Indo-European parent language became dead long before written records have existence, it was spoken by pre-historic people, whose homeland was somewhere in eastern Europe, it was perhaps between 3000 to 2000 BC, and it was during that time the people started migrating to other places, during the centuries that followed the Indo-Europeans moved rest world, in Europe and South countries in Persia and India, and it suppressed all the local languages.

        It is believed that the only language that has survived from the Pre-Indo-European tongues of Europe is “Basque” (Language of Spain Local), but as we know the language is constantly changing and as the various groups of Indo-Europeans became isolated from one another in Europe as well as in Asia and the languages began to evolve in their own way in various regions.

      Eventually a number of distinct came out and there was no longer one common tongue but a series of completely different languages. Which further produced  many more languages, from which some languages died totally and other languages gave birth to the newer ones.

      The modern descendent of the common Indo-European parent may be deride into eight principal group of branches...

1) Teutonic:

         We should first of all consider the Teutonic branch as it belongs to English, taking about the primitive Teutonic  branch can be geographically devided into three further languages, east north and west (three parts)

        The east Teutonic  languages did not survive in modern times, their principal representative language was Gothic, which is to be found in the New Testament. The North Teutonic languages are spoken today, in the Scandinavian countries like Denmark, Norway Sweden and Iceland. West Teutonic is represented by German, Dutch and English.

2) Italic:

        When Rome was only a small village, there were several Italic languages having equal status with Latin, but as Rome achieved a dominant position in the ancient world all these languages disappointed. The modern descendent of Latin usually called roman languages, show by their geographical distribution something of the extant of Roman Empire. In France and Spain the Roman conquest resulted in the complete displacement of the earlier languages by Latin.

3) Hellenic: (Greek Culture) 

         The Hellenic branch of Indo European family is today represented by modern Greek, which is the descendent of the classical Greek of Plato and Aristotle, and the common Greek dialect of the eastern meditation area in which the New Testament was written.

4) Celtic languages:

       More than 2000 years ago, the Celtic languages were spoken throughout a wide area of western Europe generally in France, Spain and Great Britain but through the Roman conquest Latin replaced all the Celtic language, but still Celtic language s exists in Ireland and Wales (Welsh, UK).

5) Deltoslavic : 

         The Slavic languages are spoken in Russia, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. The Deltaic groups do not matter as much It compresses mainly Latvian languages, which was absorb by the soviet union 1940.

6) Indo-Iranian: 

        The oldest literary work in any Indo European language is written in an Indian language Sanskrit, as the earliest 1500 BC, many books were published in this language Sanskrit has always been of great interest to all the linguistics. Another language was Romany, it was the language was thy gypsy who roamed about in Europe and America but their native was long ago in the north western part of India.

7) Armenian: 

      Now, no longer used, its modern Armenian version is spoken in Turkey and Russia.

8) Albanian: 

       The only surviving representative of the Albanian which is spoken in North Greece.

Conclusion:

       Because all of these languages have come from a common ancestors they are called cognate language and the similarities between them which are not only of vocabulary but also of grammar. We must remember however that Indo-European is only one of a number of language families throughout the world.

Heart of Darkness - Section – 2

Characters:

Marlow:  Main narrator, captain of steamer up the Congo River

Kurtz:  Manager of the Inner Station

General Manager:  Company employee, manager of the Central Station

Unnamed listener:  Narrator of frame story

Section - 2

               One day, Marlow was lying on the station and heard two men conversing, with each other; they were the leader of EEE, and the manager. Manager was telling his uncle that he is not happy with the arrival of Mr. Kurtz on that region. The Uncle replied that the climate of the region may affect Kurtz and it may cause his death. If Kurtz die, manager's problem would get solved.

             The uncle asked that whether Mr. Kurtz was alone at the station or not, manager replied that yes he was alone but previously there was an assistant with him but he sent his assistant with a message that he does not need any assistant. Now, Mr. Kurtz was sending a high quality of ivory with considerable quantity.

Marlow begun to think about Kurtz and thought about his nature and personality, he thought that Mr. Kurtz is a good and an honest kind of a person who is devoted to his work alone. As Uncle also said,

"He should not allowed his position to be weakened"

           Manager said that Kurtz has capability to make each company station as a 'light house' which can illuminate the road for natives to lead and can prove a good sign for the better future of the natives.

           From manager's talk, Marlow come to know that almost all people who came to this part from Europe died very fast. After few days EEE departed from the station and went somewhere for business. After some time news came that all donkeys have died, but what happened to men that nobody knows.

          Marlow initially did not like even the mention about Mr. Kurtz but now his interest in Mr. Kurtz has aroused. The steamer got repaired and the journey begun. Over the river the manager has also accompanied Marlow in this journey and there were three or four other white men on the steamer.

Marlow then was meditating upon the situation and he felt that mind of man was capable of anything and the mind of man contain all the past and future and also joy, fear sorrow and such other feelings. According to Marlow,

"Thinking man is an intelligent man, who can face any situation and threats"

And what people need is a strong belief, man should believe in himself by doing this he can overcome any difficult situation.

              After sometime when they were sailing upon the river, Marlow and his companion saw a hut. On the river bank they got down from the steamer and went inside the hut on a wooden board they read words,

"Hurry up! Approach cautiously"

             Marlow did not understand what that warning meant. It was not clear there in the hut Marlow found a book, it was a book containing guidance for sea man and the author of that book had a name of "Towson" or perhaps "Tower". Marlow decided to keep that book at that time the manager said that the man who must be living there has now gone to somewhere, where nobody could find him. And they left the hut.

            Now, they just had to cover eight miles from Mr. Kurtz's station and Marlow wanted to complete the journey without delay, but it was almost getting dark and that's why they decided to continue the journey next day. Next day when they were few miles away from the company station there was an attack tribes, they were throwing arrows from behind the trees, the white men started firing guns at the attackers, but arrows were still coming. Marlow has thought about another method to stop them and then he pulled the string of the steamer whistle. The sound was completely new for them and it created panic among them. Marlow kept doing that, after few minutes all the movement stopped.

         When attacks stopped, the manager told Marlow that by now, Mr. Kurtz also must have been killed by the same tribes. When Marlow heard this, he got disappointed, he felt as if,

"He has missed his destiny in life"

        Marlow stopped his narration for a while and then started telling his story again. Marlow come to know that Mr. Kurtz is alive and he also talked about a girl whom Mr. Kurtz wanted to marry. This girl could be described as his "Intended" but ivory was his chief interest. Marlow then spoke the words which Mr. Kurtz repeatedly speak,

"My intended, My ivory, My Station, My river, My everything"

         Indeed Mr. Kurtz talked as if everything around him belong to him, but what Marlow thought that what Mr. Kurtz belong to...

Marlow's opinion was that Mr. Kurtz belongs to,

"Power of Darkness"

          Then, Marlow told his listeners that Mr. Kurtz was partly educated in England. Mr. Kurtz's mother was half English and his father was half French, and therefore Mr. Kurtz has combined culture of all the European countries. Mr. Kurtz was according to Marlow, an 'Uncommon' man. Marlow was getting interested in Kurtz and now he had become a faithful friend of him.

          The steamer has now reached to the inner station; a white man was waving his hand. As soon as Marlow got down from the steamer, he told the white man that the steamer had been attacked by the natives. The white man said that he knew about the attack and everything will be all right.

        Then the whiteman started talking with Marlow, from his talk, Marlow came to know that, the man was Russian. And he was the same man who was living in the hut where Marlow and the manager went. Marlow then put out a book which he had taken from the hut. When Russian saw the book, he got excited. The Russian then inform Marlow that he had run away from school and home at the early age and had been wandering. He was the son of priest but he quarrelled with his father, he was hardily 25 years old at this time. Marlow has given a book to him and the Russian has informed Marlow that the tribes man who had attacked Marlow's steamer were not really harass white people. Russian said that,

"The tribes of this region did not want Mr. Kurtz to leave them and therefore they had attacked the steamer."

        Because they thought that the steamer had come to take away Mr. Kurtz from that place. For Mr. Kurtz they can kill anyone. At last he added that he personally wants Mr. Kurtz to leave the region and go back to Europe. Mr. Kurtz was ill from many days and his condition was very bad. Russian pointed out a building and said that Mr. Kurtz is ill and is living in this building. He also added that natives had become his subservient.  

       When Marlow saw the building, he saw the heads and skulls of human being hang there. Russian said that those heads were of those men who had rebelled against Mr. Kurtz and his authority.

        A group of white man came and they were carrying stretcher on which Mr. Kurtz was lying. As soon as the black natives came to know that they are here to take away Mr. Kurtz they arrived and stopped white men. When Russian saw this natives fully armed and ready to fight, he told Marlow that an attack of the natives could be only prevented by Mr. Kurtz.

         When Russian had just completed that sentence, Marlow saw Mr. Kurtz raised in the stretcher to say something, this was the first time Marlow saw Mr. Kurtz. Marlow knew that "Kurtz" was a German word which meant "short". When Marlow saw Mr. Kurtz he realized that his name was apt for him. As soon as Mr. Kurtz has completed his speech, natives started to disperse in the forest.

       The white man placed the stretcher into the steamer and there Marlow personally met Mr. Kurtz. He praised Marlow and said he was glad to meet Marlow.

After sometime a native woman arrived there, she stayed for a while and then she walked away into forest. Russian told Marlow that she is deeply interested in Mr. Kurtz and she tried her best to keep Mr. Kurtz here.

       On the steamer, Mr. Kurtz said that he will come back and carry away all his plans. After hearing this Manager said that if Mr. Kurtz would not be here then the ivory business would suffer.

       There were only two men on the boat, who was in favour of Mr. Kurtz and they were Marlow and Russian. Russian said that according to him, Mr. Kurtz was,

"An immortal being"

            Russian has given important information that the attackers were sent by Mr. Kurtz, because he did not want to go anywhere by leaving his station. Mr. Kurtz hated the idea of being removed from that region. Russian informed Marlow that Mr. Kurtz was a very good poet and its a great delight to here Mr. Kurtz reciting e poetry.

           At the night Mr. Kurtz left the steamer without informing anyone. Marlow came to know that Mr. Kurtz was not on the boat. He went into the forest to search him. He found Mr. Kurtz, who was trying to go as far as he could. He was not having enough energy to walk and at last Marlow lifted him up on his back to the steamer.

On the next day, there was another attack by natives and there were almost 2000 people looking at the ship, they were going to attack the ship but this time Marlow has again blow the whistle of the ship and the sound made natives to disperse in the forest, but the woman was still standing there.

          While sailing, Mr. Kurtz was talking about his life career and his intended. he kept talking about the woman whom he wanted to marry. One morning, Mr. Kurtz gave a packed of papers and a photograph. Mr. Kurtz said that the paper contains his ideas and the photograph was of the woman whom he wanted to marry. One evening, Mr. Kurtz said that he is waiting for his death and then he cried out and said,

"The horror! The Horror!"

Then Marlow left the room and after a little while, the servant came and said that,

"Mistah Kurtz - the dead"

        Next day white men buried Mr. Kurtz's dead body, and according to Marlow, they did not give Mr. Kurtz a decent burial.

          Marlow was not sad because now he was very much loyal to Mr. Kurtz and his memories. As per Marlow, Mr. Kurtz has summed up his experiences of life and the world was exact the same as per his judgements, "The Horror!" As per him,

"His was an impenetrable"

And Marlow knew that if they lose Mr. Kurtz,

"It would be an incalculable loss."

          For Marlow the last two words of Mr. Kurtz suggests the hatred in men.

Now, Marlow's business in the Congo was over and he returned of Brussels. Marlow met so many people who wanted to have papers which were given by Mr. Kurtz. Marlow thought he would give the papers to the woman in a photograph.

Marlow met a girl whom Mr. Kurtz wanted to marry and a year already had passed, the girl was still mourning over Mr. Kurtz's death, she said Marlow,

"What a lost to me, I have been very happy, very fortunate, and very proud and now I am Unhappy.

        She told Marlow that how much she loved Mr. Kurtz and then she asked about the last words of Mr. Kurtz. Marlow was aware with his last words but he lied to the woman, and said that, his last words were your name. On hearing this, the girl again started weeping. Marlow knew that the lie which he had told would remain always a source of comfort and joy to that girl.

        Marlow then had ended his narrative and at that time, the tide had also return.